Anthropology – Ethics & Writing

Guidelines for Ethical Writing in Anthropology

Ethics is a primary concern of anthropologists, as all research and writing in the discipline affect the stories and identities of real people and real societies. The American Anthropological Association has strict guidelines for ethical research and writing; for undergraduate writers, there are a few notes in particular that are critical:

Employ Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is a central standard in anthropology. The term speaks of the imperative to respect cultural differences and understand that there is a multiplicity of cultural contexts and perspectives around the globe. Hence, this perspective asserts that a culture should be understood on its own terms, not evaluated based on your own cultural standards, an approach known as ethnocentrism. You do not have the authority to determine what is culturally “right” or “wrong,” unless a practice calls into question equality and humane treatment. Be aware of how your diction (e.g. toned language) may convey your biases or perceptions (refer to the paragraph “Employ a Postmodern Approach”).

Avoid Generalizations

Cultural forces are incredibly complex and ever-changing; hence, cultures can never be singularly defined. Therefore, it is vital to avoid generalizations about a culture’s practices and to instead point out trends or patterns, ideas or themes in cultural behavior. Rather than saying “people in Culture A do this,” you can instead observe that “this activity occurs in Culture A.” This seemingly miniscule alteration in wording changes the phrase from an assertion that everyone in Culture A adheres to a practice to the mere observation that the practice occurs (perhaps among select individuals, not necessarily the whole group). It is important to avoid deducing that every person in a culture partakes in an observed practice, as oversimplification of a group of people and their traditions can lead to stereotypes.

Avoid “Othering”

Similar to avoiding generalizations, it is important not to “other” people and cultures. Historically, anthropology has been accused of establishing “laws of nature” and classifications of human societies that placed a superior/inferior hierarchy on human diversity. The “us” vs. “them” mentality is unethical; such comparisons solidify a metaphorical division between groups and, inherently, create a moral hierarchy. Modern anthropology aims to embrace human diversity and explore the vast array of perspectives held by groups from all corners of the globe. Anthropologists must actively avoid distancing one group from another, and instead they must strive to critically explore the ways diverse cultures interact with the world around them.

Once upon a time, anthropologists were seen (and saw themselves) as researchers whose goal was to go out and document “exotic” or “primitive” cultures. Today, anthropologists cringe at this idea. When you write, try not to present those about whom you are writing as somehow “Different” in the sense that the goal of your research is to catalogue them. Rather, be clear about your intentions and always conscious of choices you make when writing that may be damaging to those about whom you are writing-we are trying to speak with people, not for them. Human diversity is what anthropologists seek to explore, but when this diversity is endowed with distancing or hurtful then the ultimate goals of anthropology not only become obscured, they become damaging. Ideas about “cultural evolution” or modern vs. primitive no longer hold water. The goal of anthropology is not simply to present cultures different from our own as entertaining or strange, but to compare different cultures in order to draw conclusions about human nature.

   —former UVM Professor Cameron Wesson

Avoid Passive Voice

Passive voice is a grammatical voice in which the subject is acted upon by another agent, which may be left unknown. As anthropology is a discipline of infinite questions—its adherents always want to know the who/what/when/where of every minute detail—and holding people accountable, leaving an agent anonymous is unacceptable. For instance, if I read the phrase, “The dam was built” and not “Organization A built the dam,” and the dam flooded indigenous land, there would be a major problem—a hole in the story. As an anthropologist, I would want to know who built the dam, who funded it, who picked its location, where the materials were sourced, how the dam has affected natives and other locals, and much more. Anthropological composition is generally merited on its depth of insights, critical analysis, and ability to clearly explain and “show” somewhat diffuse, unknown concepts. Hence, factors that influence the human experience must be thoroughly detailed and explained, including decisions made by other humans (assuming technological determinism did not erect the dam).

Employ a Postmodern Approach

Anthropology recognizes that neutrality and objectivity do not exist; everyone has an opinion and perspective that will influence their portrayal of a topic. Even if you feel culturally-open-minded, accepting, and socially aware, your implicit biases may creep into your diction (e.g. via toned language), phrases, and presentation of the topic overall. As anthropologist Clifford Geertz put it, “anthropological writings are themselves interpretations, and second and third ones to boot.” Hence, writing anthropologically, you must explain your identity and how it may affect your perspective.

Use Pseudonyms

The primary mode of sociocultural anthropology research is participant observation, which, yes, entails firsthand participation and observation in a particular culture. In doing so, anthropologists become ethically bound to protect the identities and lifestyles of the people with whom they are engaged. It is critical for anthropologists to speak up in support of the rights of these groups and, when writing, it is crucial to protect their informants’ safety and wellbeing. This means that, when writing about a participant observation experience, a writer must use pseudonyms for all informants. Anthropologists immerse themselves in the lives of others; in doing so, they accept a silent obligation to act ethically and protect the culture within which they find themselves.

Other Important Considerations

“Culture” and “Exotic” Are Not Synonyms

Especially if you are new to anthropology, it can be easy to assume that anthropologists are interested in studying the “exotic” or “native” (i.e. people who are “different” from you). Truthfully, this is how anthropology started (i.e. studying only non-Euro-American peoples to “preserve” those “dying” cultures). It is NOT, however, where the discipline is today. Most anthropologists today assert that ALL culture is the subject of study and, as stated above, that cultures are neither static nor some kind of closed bubble that we go around and report on. “Exotic,” “primitive,” “native” (used synonymously with primitive)-these are terms and ideas that are no longer acceptable and thus not appropriate in anthropological writing. From “macro cultures” such as Mayan culture, American culture, or Indian culture, to more “micro cultures” such as college culture, Facebook culture, or the culture of anthropology itself, anthropology is concerned with exploring all human cultures with the intent of creating a comparative framework in which to more fully explore the richness of human diversity. Be conscious of the kind of language you use as you write and how readers may interpret it (remember that readers, especially if your audience is not familiar with anthropology, may not always garner the same things from your writing as you intend-try to be as clear as possible). Language that marginalizes or “Others” should be avoided.

Use Research, But Be Wary of “Proving”

Like in other social sciences, anthropological knowledge is produced primarily through research and writing and thus when you are writing it is critical to acknowledge and use current research to argue your thesis. However, remember that in anthropology, just like in sociology or psychology, a thesis is never “proven” but rather is supported. When talking about people, a mentality of “proving” can lead you to write in such a way as to fall victim to the issues described in the first two tips above. Your goal is to craft an argument and support it with the larger goal of having your argument contribute to the comparative framework as described above. Trying to “prove” insinuates that what you are talking about is something static, “true,” and/or universal which is just not the case when it comes to people and cultures. Doing anthropology is about exploring human diversity, not cataloguing it.